Lincoln vs. Davis

while there is no shortage of books about the american civil war, this one narrows its focus on two men who began their presidential journeys on the same day in early 1861 – abraham lincoln, the self-taught lawyer from illinois, and jefferson davis, the experienced soldier from mississippi. from day one they were forced into dealing with a tense military standoff, and how they responded to the challenge would shape the fate of the nation.

we may know the outcome, but how and why the most important decisions were made is still the subject of debate among scholars. at the core of this story is lincoln’s dramatic shift on slavery – a topic he tried to sidestep, but one that would determine the war’s outcome. lincoln vs. davis offers intriguing insights about how the emancipation proclamation came about, and why davis and his confederate general robert e. lee may in fact have opened the door for lincoln to finally make a decisive decision.

on february 11, 1861, abraham lincoln and jefferson davis began their journeys as leaders of two opposing nations. lincoln, a self-made lawyer and orator, prepared to preserve the union, while davis, a seasoned soldier, assumed leadership of the confederacy in defense of slavery and states’ rights. though both hailed from kentucky and were of similar age, their paths to power and their leadership styles were vastly different.

davis reluctantly embraced secession, stepping into leadership as the south demanded a figure with military credibility. his inaugural address painted the confederacy as a continuation of america’s revolutionary spirit, but his delivery lacked the charisma to unify the southern cause. lincoln, on the other hand, prepared for his presidency amidst threats to his life and a fractured nation. though not yet an abolitionist, he firmly opposed the expansion of slavery, facing the enormous challenge of rallying the north while addressing the secession crisis.

the secession of southern states set the stage for an inevitable confrontation. davis, already stockpiling resources and commissioning military leaders, solidified the confederacy’s defense strategy. lincoln’s inaugural address, meanwhile, called for unity and peace, but it failed to sway southern leaders, who dismissed his words as naïve. as both sides dug in, the first sparks of war began to fly.

fort sumter became the flashpoint. lincoln, urged by general winfield scott to abandon the federal property, opted instead for a bold resupply plan. davis, seeing lincoln’s strategy as a threat, pressed for action to prevent reinforcements. both leaders maneuvered carefully, knowing the fate of the fort could ignite full-scale war.

as tensions escalated, deception and strategic planning defined both administrations. lincoln navigated disloyalty within his cabinet, particularly from secretary of state william seward, who defied orders and plotted alternative strategies. davis, meanwhile, balanced public posturing with private moves to strengthen the south’s position, even as his commissioners misjudged the north’s resolve. these early decisions, marked by a mix of desperation and determination, set the tone for the bitter conflict to come.

as tensions rose in early 1861, jefferson davis remained focused on lincoln and his plans for fort sumter. secretary of state william seward’s hints about a possible union retreat failed to sway davis, who saw lincoln’s refusal to meet confederate commissioners and his resolve to hold the fort as clear signs that war was inevitable. by april, davis and his administration braced for the conflict to come.

at fort sumter, confederate forces, led by general beauregard, prepared to strike before union reinforcements could arrive. on april 12, 1861, beauregard launched an intense bombardment when major anderson, the union commander, refused to surrender. although the initial attack barely damaged the fort’s thick walls, a shift to incendiary tactics ignited fires inside, forcing anderson to evacuate on april 13. with the fort captured and largely intact, davis claimed a symbolic victory, cementing confederate control of charleston harbor.

for lincoln, the loss of fort sumter marked a turning point. the attack unified the north, transforming indifference into outrage. in response, lincoln issued a call for 75,000 militia volunteers to suppress the rebellion, asserting his determination to preserve the union. while his bold proclamation galvanized northern resolve, it also had unintended consequences in the border states, where loyalties were divided.

virginia, initially opposed to secession, reversed its stance and joined the confederacy after lincoln’s call for troops. the addition of this pivotal state strengthened the south in some ways but also stretched its resources and defenses thin. already, the signs were increasingly pointing toward a long and grueling war.

the capture of fort sumter and lincoln’s call for troops had set the stage. davis, the soldier, and lincoln, the politician, were now locked in a battle of leadership. as both sides braced for what lay ahead, the bloody conflict that would define a nation was officially underway.

in the early months of the civil war, davis leaned into his strengths as a military man. he worked tirelessly to transform the confederacy’s fledgling forces into a professional army, balancing recruitment, officer appointments, and supply logistics.

meanwhile, british war correspondent william russell toured the south, documenting the grim reality of slavery while noting davis’s struggle to gain foreign allies. this was a critical obstacle. britain and france were hesitant to back a slaveholding nation but the south needed to sell cotton to europe in order to survive.

in washington, lincoln had to admit that he had no military experience. as a result, debates raged over strategy and would continue to do so for the next year and a half. general winfield scott proposed a cautious, long-term “anaconda plan” to strangle the south through blockades. lincoln, however, leaned toward a more straight forward push, ordering a march on the confederate capital of richmond. the decision divided his advisors as it placed immense pressure on an inexperienced union army to deliver results.

as davis prepared for war, the confederacy made a pivotal decision to move its capital from montgomery to richmond. the relocation solidified virginia’s central role in the conflict but stretched southern defenses dangerously. in preparation for the union’s advance, davis fortified the area around manassas junction, strategically positioning troops. by july, both sides were bracing for their first major confrontation, with davis gambling on coordinated counterattacks to repel union forces.

the resulting battle of bull run, or first manassas, unfolded in july 1861 near the bull run river, just 20 miles from washington, d.c. union general irvin mcdowell, leading 50,000 men, sought to outflank a smaller confederate force of 20,000. early union advances seemed promising until confederate reinforcements arrived by train, tipping the scales in the south’s favor.

the chaos of battle tested both armies, but confederate general thomas "stonewall" jackson’s unyielding defense rallied southern troops. by late afternoon, the arrival of additional confederate reinforcements turned the tide decisively. the union army, inexperienced and hastily assembled, was routed, retreating in disarray to washington in what became a humiliating defeat for lincoln’s administration.

in the wake of the battle of bull run, lincoln set his sights on renewing the offensive to capture richmond, while davis hoped to continue his defensive strategy, prolong the war and force the north to negotiate. despite the rising stakes, both leaders avoided addressing slavery directly, keeping it sidelined as an issue for another day.

but the debate over slavery flared in missouri when union major general john frémont, a prominent abolitionist, declared martial law and freed enslaved people owned by confederate sympathizers. this bold proclamation brought cheers from abolitionists but alarmed lincoln, who feared it would alienate critical border states like kentucky. lincoln ultimately ordered frémont to rescind the emancipation clause, prioritizing the preservation of the union over immediate abolition. while his pragmatism frustrated allies, lincoln’s approach reflected his belief that keeping the border states loyal was vital to the union's survival.

davis, meanwhile, grappled with mounting challenges. by october 1861, many confederate leaders wanted him to be more aggressive. they envisioned 50,000 troops crossing the potomac river and taking the fight to washington. davis, though, didn’t see it as a viable option. they had only 34,000 troops available and the confederacy had the advantage of making this a war of northern aggression. if the confederacy were seen as the aggressors, it would make their case in europe even more of an uphill battle.

in washington, lincoln faced his own frustrations. general george mcclellan, now general-in-chief of all union forces, proved more interested in consolidating power than launching offensives. his arrogance, including avoiding meetings with lincoln and outright insubordination, drew criticism from congress and the press. with mcclellan stalling and the union army’s progress halted, lincoln’s leadership came under increasing fire.

as winter approached, both sides remained at an uneasy impasse, dealing with limited resources and political pressures. so much was in the balance – and there was uncertainty at every step.

in november 1861, george mcclellan, the pro-slavery union general, confidently predicted he could capture richmond by february 1862. in doing so, he proclaimed, he could resolve the war while keeping the issue of slavery untouched. but once in command of the union army, mcclellan proved to be a disastrous leader. he stalled, citing inflated estimates of confederate strength and refusing to act without more troops under his control.

while mcclellan remained inactive, confederate president davis felt the effects of the union blockade that was strangling southern trade. resources were also dwindling. military reinforcements were scarce and the south’s long-term prospects looked dim. despite public displays of positivity and resilience, davis faced mounting pressure to make real progress.

by early 1862, lincoln’s frustration with mcclellan boiled over. at a white house war council, mcclellan dodged questions about his plans, leaving the president and his advisors exasperated. though lincoln considered replacing him, mcclellan managed to regain control, stalling decisions and exploiting lincoln’s own indecisiveness. as the new year began, union strategy remained in limbo as the confederacy regrouped.

finally, on january 27, 1862, lincoln issued general war order no. 1. it called for a coordinated union offensive to stretch confederate forces thin. mcclellan, however, ignored the order and continued to push his own elaborate and risky plan: putting the union’s largest army on boats for an amphibious strike along virginia’s peninsula. known in the press as “little napoleon,” mcclellan had his supporters who backed the scheme, but many in the cabinet questioned its feasibility and worried that it left washington undefended.

the tensions continued into march, but protected by loyal generals, mcclellan pushed forward with his peninsula campaign. unable to summon the will to replace mcclellan, lincoln continued to hope for the best. but what awaited was another disaster.

it was an impressive feat of logistics: the union ferried over 120,000 troops to fort monroe, on the southern tip of the virginia peninsula. from there, they were to strike decisively at richmond. but once again mcclellan hesitated at every chance. when a small confederate force under general magruder appeared, mcclellan settled in for a prolonged siege at yorktown, squandering his overwhelming numerical advantage and losing precious momentum.

when the union army finally moved on, confederate leaders jefferson davis and general robert e. lee leaned into psychological warfare. by projecting strength and exploiting mcclellan’s insecurities, they kept the union general on edge and convinced he was facing more troops than there were. the confederates ultimately lured mcclellan into a trap at seven pines, near richmond. instead of pressing forward, he hesitated again, pleading with lincoln for reinforcements but showing little resolve to complete his mission and always staying far from the line of battle.

for davis, this marked a pivotal moment. general lee’s bold shift to a more offensive bait-and-switch strategy proved effective. the union army, despite its size, began to unravel. mcclellan’s retreat down the peninsula revealed his inability to adapt, leaving the confederacy emboldened. by the time the seven days battles unfolded, lee and davis had turned mcclellan’s campaign into a humiliating withdrawal, trapping the union army on an area of the peninsula known as harrison’s landing, and positioning the confederacy for a stronger defense of its capital.

when lincoln visited mcclellan at harrison’s landing, he confronted the general and his excuses. mcclellan deflected blame onto secretary of war edwin stanton and insisted he could still lead. lincoln, however, saw through the bluster, recognizing mcclellan’s lack of aggression as a major obstacle. and yet removing him would risk political backlash, forcing lincoln into a delicate balancing act.

meanwhile, davis still faced his own dilemmas. each victory renewed the calls for a decisive offensive blow against washington. but the victories also came with heavy casualties and resources remained low. davis also hesitated because he knew that an aggressive overreach could devastate the south’s political position.

so, while lincoln debated what to do with mcclellan, davis was likewise struggling on how to capitalize on the confederacy’s hard-won gains.

in the early fall of 1862, lincoln’s challenges were mounting. on july 13, he floated the idea of an emancipation proclamation as a tool to weaken the confederacy. secretary of state seward hesitated while navy secretary welles supported the idea, seeing it as a way to undermine the south’s reliance on enslaved labor. finally, lincoln was coming around on an effective strategy.

in the confederacy, jefferson davis was faced with the fact that after routing mcclellan’s army at harrison’s landing, european interest in the south was growing. abroad, it looked like the northern aggressors might be on the losing end of the fight. but at the same time, general robert e. lee, who’d been leading his troops to victory, was aggressively pushing a high-risk strategy: to keep the momentum going and invade maryland. lee believed the invasion could force the union into negotiations or even inspire marylanders to join the confederacy. 

here, davis made his fateful decision. despite thin resources and leaving richmond practically undefended, davis allowed lee to go ahead.

maryland didn’t greet lee’s barefoot, hungry soldiers as liberators. and on september 17, 1862, the battle of antietam proved to be a horrendous bloodbath. mcclellan had intercepted confederate plans, so he was prepared. but he was again fooled by lee’s strategies and failed to capitalize, allowing lee’s forces to escape.

lincoln, however, seized the moment. the south had now become the aggressors. at last, here was the chance for bold war-time action. on september 22, 1862, lincoln convened his cabinet to unveil the emancipation proclamation. though divisive, it was a transformative decision, reframing the war as a moral battle against slavery. effective january 1, 1863, the proclamation declared freedom for all enslaved people in rebellious states.

this was the critical moment. lincoln finally solidified his leadership, uniting a fractured cabinet and making slavery the war’s central issue. newspapers recognized it as a decisive blow to the confederacy’s cause.

for jefferson davis, the failure of the confederate invasion of the north and lincoln’s bold emancipation move marked a turning point. hopes that european powers would recognize the confederacy vanished as lincoln framed the war as a moral crusade against slavery, a cause european nations could not openly oppose without alienating their citizens.

lincoln’s decision to issue the proclamation was both personal and strategic. for months, he avoided tackling slavery directly, fearing it could shatter the union. but with the south relying on enslaved labor to sustain its war effort, he realized the issue could no longer be sidestepped. with military strategy floundering, he saw emancipation as both a moral imperative and a way to invigorate the union’s cause.

still, the response was polarizing. general mcclellan, already critical of lincoln, condemned the proclamation and even threatened resignation, further straining their relationship. by november 1862, lincoln fired mcclellan, signaling a shift in leadership and a renewed focus on decisive military action. this move, celebrated by the press, demonstrated lincoln’s resolve to align military and political strategy with the union’s evolving goals.

internationally, the proclamation was a diplomatic masterstroke. the south’s dreams of foreign recognition dissolved, leaving the confederacy increasingly isolated. here, davis revealed his lack of political understanding. he had the chance to counter lincoln with a proposal for gradual emancipation, which might have swayed european opinion, but he chose inaction. this lack of adaptability revealed a deeper failure to address the confederacy’s growing vulnerabilities and signaled its inevitable decline.

the moment lincoln signed the proclamation marked a turning point – not just in the war but in the nation’s moral identity. he ensured that the fight for the union would also be a fight for freedom, one that would determine the nation’s identity moving forward.

in this chapter to lincoln vs. davis by nigel hamilton, you’ve learned that abraham lincoln and jefferson davis were very different kinds of leaders, who presided over a divided america during its deadliest conflict. lincoln wrestled with his own indecisions, as well as a dysfunctional cabinet, while struggling to find a capable general to secure victory. davis, a seasoned soldier from mississippi, struggled with economic instability while trying to keep the narrative about the war focused on northern aggression and not on the south’s dependence on slavery. 

while davis and the confederates were largely successful on the battlefield, lincoln was able to take advantage of their overconfidence when they invaded the north, by issuing the emancipation proclamation as a strategic and moral imperative. davis, meanwhile, was burdened by his military background and unwillingness to compromise on the south’s foundational principles. in the end, the union’s survival and the abolition of slavery were shaped as much by lincoln’s poor military strategy as by davis’s poor handling of the political situation.

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