The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics

when you think about what makes something right or wrong, you might look to reason, religion, or social norms for guidance. but schopenhauer turned this traditional approach on its head. in two prize-winning essays – examining free will and the foundations of morality – he developed a revolutionary understanding of ethics that still challenges our deepest assumptions about right and wrong.

in this groundbreaking work on ethics, he argued that compassion, not rational thinking, forms the true basis of morality. you may recognize this truth from your own experience – those moments when you help others often spring from genuine feeling, not logical calculation. 

this chapter dives deep into schopenhauer’s insights into human nature, free will, and the role of compassion in moral behavior, to discover how they speak powerfully to lived experience even today. 

ready? let’s dive into the depths of human nature.

it’s the 1830s, and steam engines are hissing in the streets of a continent in transformation. as cities expand and factories arise, traditional ways of life are breaking down. in this time of upheaval, philosophers and thinkers are wrestling with fundamental questions about human nature and morality.

for decades, one man dominated european philosophical thinking: immanuel kant. he argued that moral behavior came from following rational rules and social duties. you might recognize this way of thinking today when people say “it’s the principle that counts” or talk about universal rules that everyone should follow.

but schopenhauer saw things quite differently. living outside the academic establishment, he observed how people actually behaved, rather than how they should behave. his insights came not just from books, but from watching life unfold in the bustling streets of frankfurt. 

when you helped someone in need, was it really because you had reasoned it out, or did you act from a deeper feeling of connection? this question led him to challenge the leading thinkers of his day. while they focused on abstract theories, he looked at real human experience. his radical work on ethics won rare recognition from the norwegian scientific society, even though his ideas challenged mainstream philosophy.

perhaps you’ve felt this tension too – when your heart pulls one way and rules point another. but schopenhauer wasn’t suggesting that every emotional impulse is morally right – far from it. instead, he wanted to understand how genuine moral behavior emerges from our motivations, character, and capacity for compassion.

in the chapters ahead, you’ll discover how schopenhauer tackled two fundamental questions: are we truly free to choose our actions? and what really drives us to help others? his answers might surprise you. as you explore these ideas, notice your own motivations when helping others. what actually drives your choices - duty, self-interest, or genuine compassion? 

understanding the true nature of moral behavior starts with honest self-observation. schopenhauer’s insights will help you navigate between emotion and reason, between self-interest and authentic concern for others.

think about this morning when you reached for your phone. was that really your free choice? you might think the answer is obvious – of course you did. but schopenhauer invites you to dig deeper. every choice you make, he argues, comes from who you are and the situation you’re in.

think about your morning routine. you think you freely choose what to eat for breakfast, but that choice actually depends on countless factors: your tastes, your habits, what’s stocked in the kitchen, the time you have available. even your taste for coffee or tea emerged through past experiences and your natural temperament.

schopenhauer recognized that actions flow from two sources: individual character and the motives present in each situation. your character is like a lens through which you view the world – it shapes how you respond to different motives. some people naturally rush to help others in distress, while others hesitate or look away. these aren’t freely chosen responses, but expressions of who they fundamentally are.

now you might wonder – if we don’t truly choose our actions, how can we be responsible? here’s where schopenhauer offers a fascinating insight: you are responsible precisely because your actions reveal who you truly are. when you act selfishly or kindly, you’re expressing your character – and that character shapes your moral responsibility.

understanding this can actually be liberating. you can stop seeing each decision as a separate battle and start thinking about the bigger picture – shaping your character over time. yes, your actions might be determined by who you are, but who you are can gradually change as you learn more about yourself.

so, what does this mean for becoming a better person? rather than focusing solely on making the right choice in each situation, try to understand your own character better. note any patterns that arise from your responses to others’ needs. what triggers your compassion, and what blocks it? understanding these patterns gives you more room to grow – and that’s real freedom.

imagine you’re walking down the street and spot someone trip, their groceries scattered across the sidewalk. when you rush to help, you’re not doing complex moral math in your head. you act instantly because you know how it feels to be in their shoes. this immediate recognition of another person’s situation – feeling it as if it were your own – is what schopenhauer called compassion.

let’s dig deeper into his ideas about compassion with examples from your own life. you’ve probably given up your seat on a crowded train to someone elderly, or stayed late to help a struggling colleague. in these moments, something remarkable happens – the barrier between you and them fades away.

schopenhauer’s observation about this power of compassion challenged centuries of moral philosophy. the big names – plato, descartes, kant – all claimed that emotions cloud moral judgment. and that’s why we need pure reason to guide us. 

many philosophers today still distrust emotion in ethics, preferring rational frameworks and logical principles. but schopenhauer pointed out that reason can just as easily serve selfishness as morality. after all, smart people are great at finding logical reasons to do what benefits them while ignoring the needs of others. later philosophers like nietzsche and freud picked up on this idea – we often use logic to justify what we wanted to do anyway.

but real moral behavior, schopenhauer argued, comes from directly experiencing others’ joy and suffering as your own. this connection forms the basis of both justice and genuine kindness. once you truly see others’ experiences as real as your own, you’ll naturally want to help them and avoid causing them harm.

this changes how we think about teaching morality. instead of memorizing rules about right and wrong, we should focus on developing our capacity for compassion. to put this insight into practice, notice when you feel connected to others’ experiences, and when you don’t. notice what helps you bridge the gap. understanding this can make your moral choices more genuine and ethical.

think about the last time you faced a moral decision. perhaps someone asked for your help when you were busy, or you found a lost wallet full of cash on the street. your mind probably pulled you in several directions at once.

schopenhauer identified three fundamental forces that drive human behavior. the first and most common is self-interest. you experience this when you’re focused on your own needs and goals. it’s that feeling when you pass someone who needs help because you’re exhausted and just want to get home. don’t feel bad about this – it’s just part of being human.

the second force is malice – the desire to cause harm to others. you’ve probably noticed this in small doses, like feeling pleased when a boastful colleague makes a mistake and gets called out. or in darker times, the pull of revenge. while uncomfortable to acknowledge, this motivation exists as a part of human nature.

then there’s the third force – compassion. remember what we discussed in the last chapter – those moments when you spontaneously help others without thinking about what’s in it for you. it’s present when you feel genuine joy at someone else’s success, or cry at their heartbreak. or when you can’t enjoy your meal when you know others are going hungry.

these three motivations mix together in complex ways in your character. when you donate to charity, for instance, are you acting from pure compassion, or does the good feeling you get from giving also play a role? or when you follow the rules, is it because you have genuine concern for others or because you worry about getting caught?

understanding these different motivations can help you make better choices. you don’t need to pretend you’re a saint – self-interest and compassion often work together. and rather than denying negative impulses, see them for what they are, but you don’t have to follow them.

watch these forces at work in your life and you’ll start to see patterns. noting which motivation tends to drive your first reaction, or how often compassion naturally arises, gives vital clues to your overall character. self-observation leads to wisdom – and each insight builds your parth to better choices.

if your choices are shaped by your character and circumstances, you might wonder how compassion can guide your actions. this puzzle fascinated schopenhauer, leading him to a profound insight about moral development.

consider how you pick up new skills. a musician develops through practice and experience with their instrument. and just like that, moral behavior develops through experiencing and responding to real situations.

who you are right now shapes how you react to others’ needs, and each experience of compassion leaves its mark. when you truly recognize that another person’s suffering is as real as your own, it changes something in you. these moments build up, slowly changing how you see the world and respond to it.

learning to care for others works much like learning a new language. at first, you consciously translate everything. over time, you start thinking in that language without effort. in the same way, compassionate behavior becomes more natural over time – even if it doesn’t feel that way at first.

this explains why schopenhauer saw compassion as both the foundation and the goal of ethics. he recognized that your actions flow from your character, so you can focus on developing who you are rather than just following rules set by others. each time you notice and respond to others’ needs, you strengthen your capacity for genuine moral behavior.

significantly, this development happens within a social context. your community, culture, and relationships create opportunities for compassionate action. life doesn’t always let us pick our situation, but you can choose to engage with what life gives you mindfully, recognizing how your experiences influence your moral growth.

this shows us a deeper kind of freedom than simply making choices in the moment. by understanding how your character shapes your actions, you gain the ability to transform who you are through conscious attention and practice. 

when people grow in this way together, it spreads through society, fostering communities where compassion becomes the basic pattern for ethical life. this was schopenhauer’s lasting insight – true moral freedom comes not from rules imposed from the outside, but from developing a character where doing good becomes as natural as breathing.

when schopenhauer submitted his essay on free will to the royal norwegian scientific society in 1839, he received the recognition that had long eluded him. the society awarded his work first prize, praising its clarity and insight. his second essay on the foundation of morality, submitted to the royal danish society of scientific studies in 1840, proved more controversial.

though it won second place, the judges criticized his criticism of kant’s ethics. but these two essays marked a turning point. for the first time, a major philosophical institution had put compassion, not than pure reason, at the heart of ethics.

schopenhauer’s ideas spread beyond philosophy. modern psychology’s work on empathy, and  research showing how emotions shape moral choices, builds on what schopenhauer started. his insights into human motivation shaped great minds like nietzsche, freud, and wittgenstein, who build on his thinking about will, emotion, and ethics.

today, his ideas help us think about contemporary challenges. as artificial intelligence makes choices that affect human lives, schopenhauer’s focus on compassion raises questions. can we program machines to spot suffering as quickly as humans do? his insights about character development can also guide education and personal growth in our complex moral world.

modern neuroscience has actually confirmed many of his observations. when you see someone in pain, your brain lights up as if you felt that pain. this shows that caring for others lives in our biology – just as schopenhauer thought.

his work also speaks to today’s debates about free will and moral responsibility. as we learn more about how genes and environment shape behavior, his nuanced view of character and choice becomes increasingly relevant. you might not freely choose each action, but you can build a character that naturally responds with compassion.

looking ahead, schopenhauer’s ethics offer hope for addressing global challenges. climate change, inequality, and conflict need us to expand our circle of concern beyond immediate self-interest. his vision of how caring for others connects personal growth to building a better world.

the main takeaway of this chapter to the two fundamental problems of ethics by arthur schopenhauer is that real moral behavior grows from compassion, not from following rules or cold logic. 

this was schopenhauer’s groundbreaking idea, recognized in his prize-winning essays. while our actions flow from our character and circumstances rather than absolute free will, we are morally responsible precisely because these actions reveal who we truly are. human behavior is driven by three fundamental forces – self-interest, malice, and compassion – with compassion being the true foundation of ethical life that can be developed through conscious practice. this insight has been validated by modern neuroscience, which shows how our brains naturally mirror others’ experiences, suggesting that our moral nature runs deeper than rational calculation. his ideas still matter today, showing us how caring for others can help us grow as people and build a better world together.

okay, that’s it for this chapter. we hope you enjoyed it. if you can, please take the time to leave us a rating – we always appreciate your feedback. see you in the next chapter.